Fat Chance for the “Fat Tax”

Fat Chance for the Fat Tax Our bodies and what we put into them is our own business unless someone else is harmed in the process. I can understand a valuate on drinkers and heaterrs because drinkers can harm others when they get behind the wheel of a car, and secondhand smoke is a killer of m some(prenominal), solely a tax income on what plenty eat is preposterous. People be still going to eat detritus nutrition no matter what the cost is look at smoking, the price of cigarettes keeps going up but people continue to barter for them.People already know that junk food is bad for them, but again and again they resort back to it because of the taste. We cannot dep shoemakers last on our government to jock us with everything, we need to be self-directed and learn from our own mistakes, its the only way we provide grow as a society. The fat tax would not work because it would make the poor spend more of their already limited income, people would still go back to junk food time a fter time, and obesity is a dilemma that would not be solved by a simple tax. Obesity and poverty go hand in hand junk foods are dirt cheap so the poor continue to buy them.By placing this tax we would be levy the people who couldnt afford it. Even people that are not grave would be affected by the tax, people like the taste of junk foods whether they are overweight or not. The poor would only end up poorer if the tax was set because even if they did stop buying junk foods, they would still have to pay more money for a hefty alternative. The tax could possibly end up making us a healthier nation possibly but one thing for sure is it would definitely make us a poorer nation.Alan Maryon-Davis, President of the UK Faculty of Public Health stated that, The downside of the tax is that its regressive in terms of it would hit the poorest hardest, and in the current climate when people are struggling to make a living, its a difficult balance. Establishing this tax could also lead to j ob cuts at corporations that have popular products that are considered unhealthy. To set a tax during a time when the economy is not up doesnt seem to be a good idea any way you look at it we will be taking more money out of peoples pockets.People prefer chips, fast food burgers, and hot up over healthier things such as fruits, vegetables, and organic foods so paying an extra . 20 or . 30 cents is not going to flip their sagacity on what they like to eat. People office grumble about paying the extra money, but they will still dish it out in the end. If it were a four or five dollar tax then it would probably change their mind, but there would be some very angry citizens. superfatted foods will still be less expensive then healthier foods even if the tax was imposed.People are still going to do what they like to cigarettes and alcoholic drink are already taxed but people continue to smoke and drink, so how people think a tax on junk foods will change the way people eat is beyon d me. Citizens should not look to the government to tell them what they should eat they should be able to choose by themselves. The tax will either be too large for citizens to accept and they will get angry, or it will be too small for people to really shell out there doesnt really seem to be a happy medium. The June 2005 issue of The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition describes this in the article. Overweight or obesity (BMI 25) was 29% among both semivegetarians and vegans, and 25% among lactovegetarians. For them, vegetarian and vegan foods are fattening. Should they be taxed? (Satin). This seems to raise a very good question. Should people that are eating healthy but still seem to not be able to keep the weight off be taxed also? We should start using our time to spread healthy eating habits throughout the country instead of taxing things when they get out of hand.Obesity it not a problem that can be solved by a simple tax just like smoking and drinking were not solved by taxes. If you take this matter as far as the obstruction went then there would be people hiding out in places sneaking junk food around. William Saletan makes a good point in saying, If you emergency to tax the hell out of soda, you need to make people think its a drug, not a beverage that downing a ascorbic acid is like puffing on a cigarette (Engber). If you want people to stop eating junk foods then you need to show them how bad they are, taxing them wont help.Education on healthy eating habits and exercise would help the obesity epidemic more the tax would. Starting a fat tax would also form the opinion that the U. S. society is against overweight people, which could form insecurities for overweight people, and possibly be considered discrimination. The enabling of the tax might show a line in obesity, while it could also possibly show a rise in diseases such as anorexia and bulimia. People would get uncomfortable about macrocosm overweight, maybe even to the point of dep ression.The tax could show a decline in obesity over many years, and the money generated from the tax could also help stimulate some of the anti-obesity organizations. The money could also be used to cover health care, medical research, or any other number of beneficial things. It might stimulate some people to start eating healthier and exercising more. Children might be fed healthier and down the road, in a brace generations, the obesity rate would drop. Even though people would still mostly likely buy junk foods it still might cut down on the over-eating of them.Denmark has already started to impose the fat tax and it will be fully done so in 2019. I still dont buy it. The fat tax is a concept that should be thrown out the window. There are many other ways we can try to free obesity we could make companies state (in larger print) clearly what the shopper is buying when they look at the product, make healthy eating habits and exercise a bigger founder of our childrens schooling , and inform citizens on the better choice of eating healthy and what it can do to help you. These are easy ways to help obesity prevention without taking money out of the pockets of our citizens. America is a free country and citizens should have a right to choose what they can and cannot eat.Works Cited Engber, Daniel. Let Them swallow Water What a fat tax really means for America. Slate. 21 September 2009. Article. 19 November 2010. Satin, Mort. Fat tax falls flat. saltinstitute. Salt Institute. 29 July 2009. Web. 20 November 2010. Wilkins, Rebecca. Danes impose 25% tax increases on ice cream, chocolate, and sweets to curb disease. bmj. BMJ. 6 July 2010. Web. 20 November 2010.

Skywest Inc

Case 6 flick westbound Inc. and the regional air lane assiduity 1. 3 Business Model 1. Network Carriers legacy carriers Hub-and-Spoke 2007 United, Northwest, American, Continental Delta 2005 5 82 % 10 0 25. 3 2. Low bell Carriers low cost business model point-to-point Southwest JetBlue legacy Low Cost Low Cost United air lanes Low Cost United Ted Airlines Delta Low Cost Deltas Song Airlines 3. officeal Carriers Jets bequest Network (Hub-and-Spoke) short-haul flight regional Airlines block-hour incentive Regional 95 % Regional Regional Hub-and-Spoke bequest Regional Airlines married person SkyWest Inc History Origins in the Early 1970s SkyWest Dixie Airline St. George Utah 1972 J. Ralph Atkin 4 Dixies Commuter Airline Atkin Fixed Base Operation (FOB) Air Charters Air Ambulance Service baffle 1972 Atkin SkyWest Airlines 1974 Jerry C. Atkin Ralph Atkins nephew $25,000 Oct 1975 Reorganized 3 SkyWest Expansion in the Late 1970s 1976 Hughes Air West Cedar City-Salt Lake City SkyWest Navajo Chieftans 5 National Parks shipping Company Avis Franchises 2 Cedar City St. George. 1977 Interline American Airlines ? Check-in Interline SkyWest 1978 1. SkyWest Commuter Airline ( Regional Airline) 3 Certified Air Carrier Federal Government Regulations Major Airlines 2. Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) SkyWest 3 $160,000 Page Arizona Yuma, Kingman, Prescott, Grand Canyon, Tucson, Winslow Phoenix, Arizona, Blythe, Los Angeles, and El Centro, California. 3. SkyWest Fairchild Metroliner II $1. 4 ( $150,000) Growth from Deregulation, Acquisition, and Affiliations in the 1980s 1978 Major Airlines United, Western American Airlines Regional Airlines SkyWest 1983 Metros 7 Navajo Chieftans 5 Cessna 207s Charters SkyWest Reagan Reagan Professional Air Traffic Controllers Association 24 Sep 1981 SkyWest Arizona Metro S kyWest 1982 SkyWest 10 Republics Escort 1980s SkyWest Mail, Small Packages, and Bank Documents 10 % 1983 SkyWest 2 Regional Airlines St. George 17 6 250 Customer Service Aug 1984 SkyWest Las Vegas Palm Springs, California Southern California Palm Springs sunniness Aire 1968 Borrego Springs, California San Diego 90 1983 sunbathe Aire 330,000 1985 Sun Aire SkyWest Metros SkyWest 12 14 Sun Aire 28 Sun Aire Facilities American Airlines Los Angeles SkyWest/Sun Aire Major Market SkyWest Regional Carrier 11 Holding Company SkyWest, Inc. , 3 1. SkyWest Airlines Inc. SkyWest gentle wind Inc. ) 1998 Regional Airline 5 12 Business Travelers SkyWest Commuter Airline Ski Resorts California SkyWest Airlines Delta Continental Airlines 2. Scenic Airlines Air Tours, General tune Scheduled Flights Grand Canyon Arizona, Utah, Nevada 3. National Parks Transportation franchise Avis 1985 SkyWest Code-Sharing Wester n Airline Salt Lake 70% 1987 Delta Airlines Western Airlines SkyWest Delta Code DL SkyWest SkyWest/Sun Aire Western Express Delta confederation. Logo Code-Sharing Major Regional Airlines 1980 United Airlines Regional United Express American Airlines American Eagle Network 1980 SkyWest Brasilia EMB-120 turbo-propeller plane Regional Airlines SkyWest California 1986 Sun Aire acquisition SkyWest NASDAQ 1987 SkyWest Air Transport Worlds Commuter/Regional Airline 500 Regional Airlines 988 SkyWest $2. 3 California 28 Events in the 1990s Jun 1993 Aviation Services West, Inc. Flight Tour Scenic Airlines, Inc. , Las Vegas Grand Canyon Aviation Services West Scenic Airlines, Inc. 1994 SkyWest Delta Salt Lake City 5 Casper, Wyoming Butte, Montana Burbank, California Rapid City and Sioux Falls, South Dakota SkyWest Canadair Regional Jets (CRJs) Bombardier, Inc. Brasilias 50 540 1,200 miles 41,000 Oct 1995 SkyWest Continental Airli nes Code-Sharing SkyWest Continental Connection Los Angeles SkyWest 3% Continental Flights 1996 48% Delta 1996 SkyWest 2. 5 16 SkyWest Brasilias 50 Canadair Regional Jets 10 Metroliner 1 Oct 1997 SkyWest United Airlines United Express SkyWest Connecting Flight Los Angeles 1997 SkyWest 25 SkyWest 585 45 12 Salt Lake City Vancouver Canadair Regional Jets 19 Jan 1998 SkyWest United United Express San Francisco Hub United June 1, 1998 1998 SkyWest Connecting flight 3 Major Airlines Delta, United Continental 1 July 2002 SkyWest Tucson Arizona. 8 Dec 2002 United Airlines ally SkyWest Chapter 11 2003 SkyWest Bombardier CRJ700 70 30 United Express 9 May 2003 SkyWest code-share Continental Airlines SkyWest regional Continental Houston, The US Department of Transportation SkyWest 2003 SkyWest DOT SkyWest 1 5 regional carriers DOT 2004 hub Chicago, IL (ORD) Colorado Springs, CO (COS) CRJ Delta Dallas/ Fort Worth H ub (DFW) SkyWest SkyWest ,000 DOT SkyWest 2004. pic2005 SkyWest, Inc. Atlantic southeastern Airlines Delta Air Lines. Chicago OHare. Sky West Inc. attendant United Delta 2006 Legacy 2 2006 SkyWest CRJ900 Dec 2006 SkyWest Inc. SkyWest Midwest Partner pic2007 SkyWest Airlines Midwest Connect / Delta Connection / United Express Legacy 2 (Delta Connection / United Express) Outsource 20 SkyWest Inc. Denver, Chicago, Los Angeles San Francisco United express SkyWest Inc. Outsourcing Delta SkyWest Delta Connection Department of Transportation Cedar Utah 8 Jan 2008. Source Annual Report 2007 SkyWest Inc. Skywest Inc. 2. Bridging the Region Gap from West to East SkyWest Inc. Regional Airline Western Eastern SkyWest Airlines ASA artner Legacy Airlines safety / on time arrival / service and quality / rectitude and consistency / working together as a team / personal and corporate integrity and maintaining profitability & Efficient Use of All Resources. SkyWest Inc. Partner Legacy Airline / Developed industry-leading reputations for providing quality, low-cost regional airline service. 3. (Functional Level Strategy) pic Inbound Logistics Service , , , Ground Handling Equipment, Operations Outbound Logistics Marketing and Sales distribution Legacy Airline Partner proceeds Design Service (Functional Level Strategy) (Competitive Advantage) 3. 1 choice Efficiency well-made Efficiency SkyWest Inc. Product Design 0. 03 USD 0. 095 USD. Partner Legacy Airline (routine maintenance) Human Resource 90 -Retirement Plans SkyWest Inc. Teamwork Information System Function Interline American Airlines Check-in Republics Escort Marketing Product (Cost per purchasable seat mile) Place Code Sharing Market Share Partner Legacy SkyWest Inc. 2006 SkyWest Inc. 3,114 2005 1,964 ( Exhibit 6) 3. 2 Superior persona Superior type SkyWest Inc. dependability The Aviation Safety Action Program Program Stetson bore Suite SkyWest Inc. SkyWest Airline Regional Airline 15 2004 2005 SkyWest 84. 5% SkyWest 1% 50% 2006 SkyWest Airlines 1. 2 % 1. 7 % Reliability SkyWest Airlines . 3 Superior Innovation Process Innovation SkyWest Airline ASA 2 Partner Legacy Airline 3. 4 Superior Customer Responsiveness SkyWest Airlines DOT 2 2003-2004 Functional Strategy SkyWest Inc. Superior Customer Responsiveness Superior Efficiency Product Design Upgrade 0. 103 USD 0. 095 USD. Superior Quality Customer Service 4. (Business Level Strategy) (Functional Level Strategy) . What needs will be satisfied? SkyWest Inc. Regional Airline Legacy Airlines partnership 2. Who will be served? Connecting flight Legacy Airlines (Broad Target) 3. How will those needs be satisfied? On-time service with quality. Business Strategy SkyWest Inc. Cost Leadership Competitive Positioning Efficiency Quality Business Leisure (Broad Target) Legacy Airlines partner Western Eastern Customer Services) Business Strategy Functional Strategy Superior Efficiency Superior Quality Superior Customer Responsiveness 5. (Corporate Level Strategy) SkyWest Inc. 1. Concentration Growth Horizontal Growth ASA Partner Legacy Airline Partner Legacy Airline Partner (Contract Agreement Term) Intensive Growth Improve Competitive Position Regional Airline 2. Retrenchment Sell-out National Parks Transportation Scenic Airlines Atlantic Southeast Airlines (ASA) pic (Concentration Strategies) 1. Market Penetration SkyWest Inc. Upgrade ( CRJ 50 ) Legacy Airline (Contract Agreement Term) Legacy Airlines 2. Market Development ASA ( ) Eastern Partner Legacy Airline 6. 6. 1 (Organizational Structure) SkyWest Inc. Geographic Structure (Destinations) Sk yWest Airline Atlantic Southeast Airline (ASA) Functional Structure Decision Making SkyWest Inc. Centralized ( www. SkyWest. com/about/exec. php , www. flyasa. com , www. SkyWest,Inc. htm ) 6. 2 (Organizational Culture) SkyWest Inc. Efficiency and Quality Efficiency Part metre 3 Ticket Agents / Baggage Handlers SkyWest Airlines $40,000 $202,000 ASA Airlines Quality SkyWest Airline Maintenance Department AMT Award 3 2004 2006 The US Department of Transportation SkyWest 2003 2004 6. 3 (Organizational Leadership) Chairman, President and CEO Jerry Atkin accept the Airline Business magazine award for Regional Airlines Leadership Efficiency and Quality 7. (Strategic Control) 7. 1 Efficiency SkyWest Inc. ASA Delta SkyWest Inc. SkyWest SkyWest 70 90 50 2007 SkyWest Inc. SkyWest ASA ? ASA Regional SkyWest ASA Cost per available seat pic 7. 2 Quality SkyWest Inc. The US Department of Transportation SkyWest 2003 2004 SkyWest Inc. the Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration Stetson Quality Suite software SkyWest Inc. ? Partner Legacy Airline 7. 3 Innovation Midwest, Bradford R. Rich , CEO Treasurer SkyWest Inc. SkyWest Midwest ASA Teamwork ? 7. 4 Customer Responsiveness The US Department of Transportation SkyWest 003 2004 Legacy Airlines 8. (Strategic Evaluation) 8. 1 Established standards and targets Regional Airline Partner Legacy Airline FAA / DOT TSA Regional Airline Legacy Airline Partner Legacy Airline 8. 2 Create measuring and monitoring system Yield/RPM, Revenue/ASM, Cost/ASM omit baggage handling rate 8. 3 Compare actual performance against the established targets ? 8. 4 Evaluate result and take action if necessary (Statements of Income / labyrinthine sense Sheets / Air Travel Consumer Report) easuring and monitoring system 9. SkyWest Inc. (Func tional Level Strategy) Superior Efficiency Superior Quality Superior Customer Responsiveness Superior Efficiency Product Design 0. 103 USD 0. 095 USD. Superior Quality (Customer Service) (Business Level Strategy) Cost Leadership Competitive Positioning Efficiency Quality Business Leisure (Broad Target) Major Airline Partner (Customer Services) Western Eastern (Corporate Level Strategy) 1. Market Penetration SkyWest Inc. ( CRJ 50 ) Legacy Airline (Contract Agreement Term) 2. Market Development ASA ( ) Eastern Partner Legacy Airline Bridging the Region Gap from West to East Regional Airline Western Eastern Operations Developed industry-leading reputations for providing quality, low-cost regional airline service. 10. (Effectiveness of Strategies) get aheadability (ROIC) Profit Growth 5 5 5 MESA strip, ALASKA AIR, EXPRESSJET, PINNACLE AIRLINES REPUBLIC AIRWAYS 6 002-2006 Airli nes 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 SKYWEST 86. 87 66. 79 81. 95 112. 27 145. 81 MESA AIR -11. 27 25. 31 26. 28 56. 87 33. 97 ALASKA AIR -118. 60 13. 50 -15. 30 -5. 90 -52. 60 EXPRESSJET 84. 28 108. 18 122. 77 97. 99 92. 7 PINNACLE AIRLINES 30. 79 35. 07 40. 73 25. 70 77. 80 REPUBLIC AIRWAYS 7. 69 36. 14 38. 85 60. 65 79. 51 add 79. 75 284. 98 295. 28 347. 58 377. 05 (Source Annual Report year 2002-2006 ) Plot 2002-2006 pic SkyWest Inc. SkyWest Inc. 2005 SkyWest Inc. SkyWest Inc. ASA Delta 2005 ASM (Available Seat mile) SkyWest Inc. ( passenger Revenue) Ground Handling Service Major Airline Partner ASA 2005 SkyWest Inc. 2002 2006 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 OPERATING REVENUES rider 769,427 882,062 1,139,580 1,938,450 3,087,215 Ground handling and other 5,020 5,964 16,464 25,598 27,441 Total operating revenues 774,447 888,026 1,156,044 1,964,048 3,114,656 OPERATING EXPENSES Total operating expenses 654,892 779,546 1,011,268 1,743,640 2,775,496 Interest expense 3,611 9,891 18,239 53,330 118,002 2003 2004 2005 2006 OPERATING REVENUES Passenger 14. 64% 29. 19% 70. 10% 59. 26% Ground handling and other 18. 80% 176. 06% 55. 8% 7. 20% Total operating revenues 14. 67% 30. 18% 69. 89% 58. 58% OPERATING EXPENSES Total operating expenses 19. 03% 29. 73% 72. 42% 59. 18% Interest expense 173. 91% 84. 40% 192. 0% 121. 27% 2002 -2003 2004 2002 2006 Airlines 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 SKYWEST 71. 96% -23. 11% 22. 71% 36. 99% 29. 87% MESA AIR 76. 56% 324. 57% 3. 86% 116. 37% -40. 27% ALASKA AIR -173. 27% 111. 38% -213. 33% 61. 44% -791. 53% EXPRESSJET 75. 31% 28. 36% 13. 49% -20. 18% -5. 4% PINNACLE AIRLINES 116. 10% 13. 91% 16. 13% -36. 90% 202. 74% REPUBLIC AIRWAYS 26. 73% 370. 00% 7. 51% 56. 12% 31. 09% Total 190. 78% 257. 33% 3. 62% 17. 71% 8. 48% Plot 20 02-2006 pic SkyWest Inc. 2002-2006 2003 CRJ200s EMB120s ROIC ROIC = Net Profit (After Tax) Invested Capital ? Invested Capital = Total Equity + Total Long-term Debt ( http//finapps. forbes. com/finapps/jsp/finance/compinfo/) (Annual Report) Sky West 2001-2006 ROIC 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Net Profit (After Tax) 86,866 66,787 81,952 112,267 145,806 Total Asset 999,384 1,529,210 1,662,287 ,320,646 3,731,419 Total Equity 638,686 709,063 779,055 913,198 1,178,293 Long-Term Debt 125,379 462,773 463,233 1,422,758 1,675,626 Total Invested Capital 764,065 1,171,836 1,242,288 2,335,956 2,853,919 ROIC 11. 37% 5. 70% 6. 60% 4. 81% 5. 11% (Source Annual Report from www. SkyWest. com) ROIC SkyWest Inc. ROIC 5 MESA AIR, ALASKA AIR, EXPRESSJET, PINNACLE AIRLINES REPUBLIC AIRWAYS 6 2002 2006 ROIC Airlines 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 SKYWEST 11. 37% 5. 70% 6. 60% 4. 81% 5. 11% MESA AIR -5. 67% 8. 14% 3. 87% 6. 99% 4. 44% ALASKA AIR -7. 84% 0. 85% -0. 92% -0. 33% -2. 74% EXPRESSJET 31. 53% 39. 46% 42. 49% 27. 21% 20. 37% PINNACLE AIRLINES 37. 52% 48. 96% 34. 67% 18. 41% 35. 68% REPUBLIC AIRWAYS - 7. 18% 3. 97% 3. 44% 3. 99% Plot pic SkyWest Inc. ROIC 2003, 2005 2006 2003 CRJ200s EMB120s 005 ASA Delta ROIC 2005 ROIC 11. (Problems) SkyWest Airline (Miss baggage handling) Atlantic Southeast Airline Cancel flight (Miss baggage handling) (On-time) ASA 12. (Issues) 1. Partner Low Cost Airlines (South West Airline and Jet Blue) 2. Partner 13. (External Environment Analysis) (External Strategic Factors) (Opportunity) (Threat) (Attractive or Unattractive Industry) 13. 1 General Environment pic a) Economic segment 4 US Inflation rates pic Current Inflation Rate Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Ave 2009 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 2008 4. 28% 4. 03% 3. 98% 3. 94% 4. 8% 5. 02% 5. 60% 5. 37% 4. 94% 3. 66% 1. 07% 0. 09% 3. 5% 2007 2. 08% 2. 42% 2. 78% 2. 57% 2. 69% 2. 69% 2. 36% 1. 7% 2. 76% 3. 54% 4. 31% 4. 08% 2. 85% 2006 3. 99% 3. 0% 3. 36% 3. 55% 4. 17% 4. 32% 4. 15% 3. 82% 2. 06% 1. 1% 1. 97% 2. 54% 3. 24% 2005 2. 97% 3. 01% 3. 15% 3. 51% 2. 0% 2. 53% 3. 17% 3. 64% 4. 69% 4. 35% 3. 46% 3. 42% 3. 9% 2004 1. 93% 1. 69% 1. 74% 2. 29% 3. 05% 3. 27% 2. 99% 2. 65% 2. 54% 3. 9% 3. 52% 3. 26% 2. 68% 2003 2. 60% 2. 98% 3. 02% 2. 22% 2. 6% 2. 11% 2. 11% 2. 16% 2. 32% 2. 04% 1. 77% 1. 88% 2. 7% 2002 1. 14% 1. 14% 1. 48% 1. 64% 1. 18% 1. 07% 1. 46% 1. 0% 1. 51% 2. 03% 2. 20% 2. 38% 1. 59% 2001 3. 3% 3. 53% 2. 92% 3. 27% 3. 62% 3. 25% 2. 72% 2. 72% 2. 65% 2. 13% 1. 0% 1. 55% 2. 83 % 2000 2. 74% 3. 22% 3. 76% 3. 7% 3. 19% 3. 73% 3. 66% 3. 41% 3. 45% 3. 45% 3. 45% 3. 39% 3. 8% 1999 Fiscal Year Domestic International Total % change 2006 660. 9 89. 7 750. 6 0. 46 2007 693. 3 75. 8 769. 1 2. 46 2008 713. 8 79. 8 793. 6 3. 19 2009 735. 7 84 819. 7 3. 29 2010 758. 9 88. 3 847. 2 3. 35 2011 782. 6 92. 9 875. 5 3. 4 2012 807. 7 97. 6 905. 2 3. 39 2013 833. 4 102. 3 935. 7 3. 37 2014 860. 5 107. 2 967. 7 3. 42 2015 888. 4 112. 3 1,007. 1 4. 07 2016 917. 7 117. 6 1035. 3 2. 80 2017 848. 4 123. 1 1071. 6 3. 51 Source Forms 41 and 298-C, US Department of Transportation Forecast % Passenger change pic Source RAA Industry Life Cycle Forecast % Demand Passenger change Airline Industry 2006 Life cycle Airline Industry Airline Industry Regional Airlines Regional Airlines 1970-2006 Life cycle Regional Airlines ? Industry Life Cycle Growth ) Strategic Groups pic Y achievement Performance Partner Airli ne Legacy X c) Strategic Types Strategic Type Regional Airline Defender Regional Airline Performance Partner Legacy Airline Regional Airline Legacy Airline FAA TSA DOT Upgrade d) Key Success Factors On Time Schedule Sector Regional Airlines ? Hub Time Elasticity Destinations Regional Airline Cost Regional Airline Partner

Corporate Identity Essay

Explained by Balmer and Soenen (1999). The International integrated Identity Group (ICIG), therefore, came up with a statement of unified identity, The Strathclyde Statement, to describe it. Please refer to Appendix B for the ICIG statement. A commonality mingled with all attempts to define in corporeald identity, as well as, The Strathclyde Statement, indicates its characteristics which are concluded to be 1. Collective. 2. Central. 3. Enduring. 4. Identifying of unified. 5. Manageable. 6. Manifested by bodily-level dodging (vision and mission). 7. Affecting embodied image and affected by embodied image. Can be a source of competitive advantage. In spite all the variations in defining the concept, a clearer image of what collective identity is emerges after studying its cosmoss and dimensions. This will be explored in the next section. Corporate identity The social organization What meant by structure is the components that describe the unified identity. Regardless of t he difference in categorizations, researchers have more(prenominal) in common when it comes to studying the construct of bodied identity than they had in its definition. Different views were offered of the construct of merged identity.From a orporate talk paradigm, Birkigt & Stadler (1986) in (Balmer, 1998) have introduced corporate identity amalgamate that focuses on the means by which corporate identity is communicated. Their mix take ons corporate personality, conduct, communication, and symbolism. Birkigt & Stadler mix has been given a good deal of attention by many authors (van Riel, 1995 Balmer, 1998 van Rekom, 1997). Communication is considered an Copernican factor in shaping corporate identity, where it is stated that messages are communicated through behaviour of organization members (Balmer & van Riel, 1997).In 1995, Schmidts mix was introduced it adds external environmental factors and also includes corporate ending to the corporate identity mix. It is composed of corporate culture, corporate behaviour, market condition and strategies, product and services, and communication picture. Melewar Karaosmangolu (2006) suggest a seven dimensions construct for corporate identity that is in truth similar to Schmidts mix. These are corporate culture, corporate behaviour, and corporate communication, corporate structure, corporate strategy, corporate design, and industry identity.Balmer and Soenen (1999) have proposed a corporate identity mix that is composed of three of the human senses these are soul, mind, and voice, see figure 1. The mind is the vision and philosophy, strategy, products and services, corporate performance, brand architecture, and corporate ownership, the soul consists of values, cultures, employee affinity, and internal images, and the voice consists of the corporate uncontrolled communication, controlled communication, symbolism, personnel and corporate behaviour, and indirect (external/ third party) communication. foresee 1 1 Corporate Identity Mix Adopted from (Balmer & Soenen, 1999) Corporate culture Corporate culture was devoted proper attention since the early stages in expanding the corporate identity concept beyond the visual identity (Baker & Balmer, 1997 Hatch & Schultz, 1997 Stuart, 1999 Dowling, 1986 Markwick & Fill, 1997 Stuart, 1999 Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Culture epitomises the consensus deep down a company about how activities should be accomplished and is conceived as a result of a groups shared experience and learning with adore to atters of external adaptation and internal integration (Schein, 1985) in (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). It is therefore, represented in the shared values and beliefs among corporate members and also includes corporate philosophy, mission, and subcultures (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006).Baker & Balmer (1997) consider culture as the most weighty element in the corporate identity mix. However, in their explanation for corporate identity mix, Ba lmer & Soenen (1999) consider culture as a different concept from values but they place both of them in the Soul category in their organically inspired categorization. All researchers in the scoop state that corporate culture is an important factor in influencing corporate identity.Dowling (1986) puts corporate culture on the alike(p) ontological level as corporate identity and betokens that culture, identity, and image are related components of a system that defines organizations, while Markwick & Fill (1997) consider corporate culture as part of corporate personality, which straight work the corporate identity. Bernstein (1984) considers corporate personality as the total characteristics that generate corporate identity. Abratt and Shee (1989) agree to the ame opinion and consider these characteristics as the totality of behavioural and mind characteristics of the corporate.Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) order that culture is usually communicated to stakeholders through emp loyees behaviour. Therefore, culture can be considered as a context in which employees behaviour is formulated (Stuart, 1999). Corporate conduct Many commentators suggest that the actions of a corporation are a fundamental element of its identity (Balmer & van Riel, 1997 Hatch & Schultz, 1997 Kiriakidou & Millward, 2000 Topalian, 1984 Olins, 1995).While Balmer & Soenen (1998) consider behaviour as part of the voice in their categorization, Melewar & Jenkins (2002) gives more attention to the behaviour as described by the body language. Behaviour is one of the most important aspects in corporate identity since corporate identity is rooted in the behaviour of its members (Balmer & van Riel, 1997). This impressiveness comes from the fact that behaviour can be an important media to communicate messages to different stakeholders (Melewar & Jenkins, 2002). Olins (1995) contends that everything that corporate does or ay communicates.Therefore, it is important to align employees behaviour totality or the corporate behaviour with the values, philosophies and communication to effectively contribute toward make the targeted identity. van Rekom (1997) argues that actions that are deliberate are more important than spontaneous ones. Markwick & Fill (1997) argues that the visual cues can be misleading they rely on other cues such as behaviour, communication, and values to understand corporate identity. It is important, then, to indicate that corporate behaviour has to e managed and aligned with the messages communicated by corporate to enforce its identity.Management behaviour is an important aspect of behaviour since the former are more exposed to stakeholders. Hatch and Schultz (1997) argue that identity and image are influenced by the management behaviour. Melewar & Jenkins (2002) argue that management behaviour should be consistent with the values and vision of the organization not to create confusion or communicate faulty messages. Van Rekom (1997) emphasizes the importance of centrality in corporate identity and suggests that employees efforts and behaviour should collaborate owards confirming the organization goals and objectives.Communication and design The purpose of creating a favourable corporate identity is to pouch a positive image to stakeholders and consequently a good theme for the organization. Corporate identity has to be communicated in order to be able to take this advantage. Therefore, all communication medias have to be aligned and coordinated in order to create a consistent corporate identity. Van Riel (1995) considers era in communicating corporate identity as a factor to measure the effectiveness of corporate communication.Controlled Communication Ind (1992) describes corporate communications as the serve up which translates corporate identity into image. Where Ind include uncontrolled communication in his definition, van Riel (1995) distinguishes between controlled and uncontrolled communication in his definition of corporate communication as an instrument of management by means of which all consciously used forms of internal and external communications are harmonized as effectively and efficiently as possible, so as to create a favourable basis for congenatorships upon which the company is dependent.Controlled communication can be classified to include management communication, marketing communication, and organizational communication which are controlled type of communication (van Riel, 1995). Management communication is vital in communicating the corporate objectives and goals to employees (Melewar & Jenkins, 2002). It is delimit as an attempt to communicate the vision and mission of the company in order to establish a favourable image and ultimately a good reputation amongst its internal and external stakeholders (Olins, 1989).Marketing ommunication is generally associated with the 4Ps of product, price, place and promotion, and is aimed at supporting the sales of an organisations product s or services. Marketing communication include, advertising, public relation activities and direct marketing. Van Riel (1995) puts organizational communication as the one with stakeholders that has an interdependent relationship with the organization this includes internal and external stakeholders. Uncontrolled Communication Cornelissen (2000) contends that perceived corporate identity is formed by controlled and uncontrolled communication.Olins (1995) and Balmer (1995) agree on that everything the organization does or say communicates. Uncontrolled communication usually occurs by organizations members dealing with external stakeholders (Moingeon & Ramanantsoa, 1997). It can be concluded that uncontrolled communication mainly occurs through behaviour therefore, behaviour of corporate members should be aligned with corporate philosophies, values and strategies as mentioned earlier. Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) suggest that the corporate members commitment to the corporate values a nd goals will reduce the negative uncontrolled communication.A dynamic interrelationship between culture and communication (controlled and uncontrolled) can be concluded from the earlier argument. Corporate culture is usually communicated through employees behaviour (uncontrolled communication) (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Corporate Design Corporate design is consisted of the organisations name, slogan, logotype and symbol, colour and typography (Melewar & Saunders, 1998). Bernstein (1986) and Dowling (1986) consider the messages communicated through the symbol have more value than the symbol itself.Therefore, it is the communication done by the ymbol that makes the visual identity important to corporate identity. Melewar and Saunders (1998) attest on the importance of visual identity of corporation in influencing purchase decisions by consumers due to the fast change in technology. The visual manifestation of corporate identity can communicate the corporate values and support the other forms of communication (Baker & Balmer, 1997). Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) also found that the slogan has powerful effect on stakeholders wisdoms of the organizations. organize Corporate structure is fundamental component of corporate identity (Olins, 1986 Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Brand structure Organizations develop stigmatization strategies in order to distinguish itself from competitors (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006). Olins (1986) have introduced three different brand structures 1 . Monolithic structure in this structure, the corporate uses consistent design and name. 2. Endorsed structure where the names and designs of the subsidiaries are associated with the parent corporate. 3.Branded structure indicates that the design and name of the parent company is less exposed to customers and different products have separate brands. Organisational Structure Organizational structure refers to the hierarchy in the organization, lines of reporting and communication. The degree autonomy of the managers is determined by the degree of centralization within the organizations structure. The more decentralize the structure is, the more autonomy managers have, (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006) which may lead to the emergence of new brand structure (Olins, 1986).Strategy All literature reviewed has made a link between corporate identity and strategy. There are different views on the relationship between corporate identity and trategy. The first view indicates that strategy provides a context to encapsulate corporate identity (Markwick & Fill, 1997 Stuart, 1999). The second view argues that as corporate identity encapsulates corporate values and mission and vision, it makes a role point for the corporate strategy (Balmer & Greyser, 2009).He (2006) suggests a dynamic interrelationship between corporate identity and strategy which can be bidirectional. He (2006) suggests that corporate identity and strategy should have a big enough gap to allow change and enough alignment to maintain onsistency. Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006) have highlighted two strategy types that are Differentiation Strategy Differentiation strategy is the aspect of the corporate strategy that focus on the corporate strength and competitive advantage which is link to the basic identity of the corporate (Melewar & Karaosmangolu, 2006).Positioning strategy Positioning strategy which is, according to Melewar & Karaosmangolu (2006), linked to the desired identity for the corporate. Corporate identity management several(prenominal) models were introduced by academics to manage corporate identity. In the following sections, some of these models are described and analysed. Kennedy (1977) Kennedys model has focused on the creation of a positive corporate image (See Figure 2). She has realised the ability to influence corporate image through behavioural projections of the company.Kennedy has realised that based on the reality behaviour, or as per her wording policies ope rating within the company, an enduring and robust positive image can be obtained. In this model, Kennedy has acknowledged the importance of the effect of employees intelligence of the corporate n their behaviour and consequently on the projection of the corporate image to other stakeholders. In other parts of her article she declares the importance of employees in the process of company image formation.Also, there was no mentioning of visual identity of the corporate, as we know it is part of the corporate identity mix. Although her model hasnt handled corporate identity in its new shape, her model was a starting point for several further models. Kennedys model main contribution was her awareness of the ability to influence corporate image based on corporate reality and behaviour. Figure 1 2 Kennedy model for managing corporate image Adopted from Stuart (1999) Dowling (1986) As seen in Figure 3, Dowling has elaborated on the role of communication in forming image of the corporat e.Dowling considered that interpersonal communication represents the images of the firm held by these groups, and that mass media communication represents the companys perception of itself. His argument is in contrast with the later literature reviewed which distinguishes between corporate identity, which communication is part of, and the corporate image that can be influenced by communication. Van Riel (1995) suggests that corporate communication should be consistent with corporate strategy, corporate identity, and corporate image.Figure 1 3 Dowling model for managing corporate image Adopted from Stuart (1999) In the conception of corporate culture, Dowling has dealt with culture as a determinant where he placed it at the same level with identity (Hatch & Schultz, 1997). However, Hatch and Schultz didnt share the same opinion with Dowling where they have considered culture as a context of identity rather than being a determinant. Also Dowlings model were criticised for his under estimation of the role f management communication in influencing employees behaviour and internal images.Abratt (1989) Abratts model has introduced the concept of corporate personality. He argued that from the corporate personality, corporate philosophies can be developed, where the last mentioned include values and culture of the corporate. The strategy was also included in the corporate personality in the model as showed in Figure 4. However, Abratt has defined corporate identity as an assembly of visual clues-physical and behavioural by which an audience can recognise a company and distinguish it from others and hich can be used to represent or symbolise the company (Abratt & Shee, 1989).

Social Change

Sociology and Social modify be non nomenclature that the average person thinks close on a daily basis. However, these argon definitely two areas that rig society on a regularly. Chapter genius of the textbook discusses these subjects. This chapter gives a detailed view of the conformations of dislodge, levels of change, and causes of change. Although these are not things that are pondered upon, the information outlined in chapter one helps clarify why and how things change. It can be extremely difficult to read about or research a topic and not know simply what it is.The first thing chapter one does is defines social change. The textbooks definition of social change is the world-shattering alteration of social structure and cultural patterns through time. In other words, its when there has been a big enough change in society and its actions over time to make an impact. This section as well as breaks down social structure as the interactions between people and groups tha t have become predictable. After explaining specifically what social change is, the chapter then goes into more detail.The undermentioned thing that it talks about is the kinds of change. There are five different kinds of change. The first is changes in personnel. This is the change where different individuals with their own unique pasts are continuously moving throughout social structures. Next is change in the way parts of the structure relate. This kind of change deals with the relationship roles, especially those in the family setting. The third kinds of change are changes in the function of the structures. This change is how and what is contributed to society.Although an establishment is created to fulfill one particular need, it may very well aline to assist with superfluous needs. Fourth, the next kinds of change are the changes in relationships between different structures. This is how certain organization may adapt over time to fulfill the needs of society at the time. Lastly, there is the emergence of new structures. The next section discusses the levels of change. There are three levels discussed in this section micro, macro, and societal.Micro level of change is the level of change that focuses on individuals and things that are of everyday concern to people. Macro level of change deals with society as a whole and how decisions are possibly formulated in society. Societal level of change is the changes that happen at bottom the urbanized society. These changes take longer to occur and mostly affect choices between women and men, and marriage ideals. The section right off following talks briefly about time be sicks of change.This segment gives a synopsis of short edge and long limit change. Short term change is normally more noticeable and obvious. Long term change is oftentimes harder to recognize and has a larger influence. The last big section of this chapter talks about the causes of change. This portion starts off by identifying the r esiduum in consequences and change. It clarifies that there is a difference but likewise states that there is a correlation. The next cause of change can be external or internal. These are also known as exogenous and endogenous.External causes, as one assumes, are those beyond the control of ones own power. Technology would be an example of external cause. Internal causes are those factors that happen course without any influence from outside forces. This section discussed three internal causes in particular. Those causes were the gap between the ideas that we package as society and the actual practices of society, the difference in what every individual learns and picks up in socialization, and the difference in the way individuals take on social roles and how they define them.Chapter one is a great canonic chapter to social change. Chapter one is a great way to start this textbook off in video display the world of sociology. Not only does it explain what social change is, it g ives exact reasons as to why. From the kinds of change, to the time frame of change, it is all relevant as to why society has reached its current culture. As well as why we are the people of society and how our actions have evolved over time.

Character Analysis of Robert Lebrun Essay

Kate Chopins The Awakening examines the implications placed on women for self expression during the 1800s. Banned for several years by critics after its initial publication in 1899 because of its unsettling content, The Awakening later became a most cherished account of a womans transit towards self-discovery and abandonment of her conventional society. Kester-Shelton) Within that story is where we meet Robert LeBrun, A young, flirtatious and confident womanizer with a temper to match and it is within this paper, that we will analyze the influential character of Robert LeBrun who without control, falls in a forbid whap affair with the protagonist, Edna Pontellier. Robert, a younger man with immature tendencies, clean shaven governing body, yellowish-br proclaim hair, and affectionate bright eyes maintains a reputation for floating in between different older women all(prenominal) summer. Eventually his affectionate nature catches the attention of Mrs.Edna Pontellier, triggering her to go through a series of epiphanies or alleged(prenominal) enkindleings where she begins the struggle between the woman her society expects her to be and the independent, self-governing woman she craves. Robert, sifting his way in between dynamic and static characteristics, plays a earthshaking role in those epiphanies because what begins as an innocent companionship turns into a forbidden love affair where Robert shows Edna a kind of love she had never seen from any separate man, even in her own marriage to Mr. Pontellier.Even though Robert did possess such a reputation of being a womanizer he really does harbor true feelings of love for Edna. This is seen in the similarity of Roberts feelings for Edna versus her close friend, Madame Ratignolle. Meanwhile Robert, addressing Mrs. Pontellier, continued to tell ace of his onetime hopeless passion for Madame RatignolleHe never assumed the seriocomic tone when alone with Mrs. Pontellier,It was down the stairsstood that he h ad often spoken talking to of love to Madame Ratignolle, without any thought of being taken seriously.Mrs.Pontellier was glad he had non assumed a similar role towards herself. It would have been unacceptable and annoying. (Chopin, page 14-15) This really shows the affection he conceals for Edna because he frame consistent with his portrayal of his feelings rather than with both serious and comic aspects during discussions. Even though throughout his summers of court older married women, himself nor his intensions are ever taken seriously, even his relationship with Edna starts out innocent when she treats him as if he were a pet, dragging him along with her like a dog.According to Edna he was always under her feet like a troublesome dog. (Chopin, page 26) But as their summer progresses, she falls for Robert and realizes she has her own strength and the power to express herself without her husband and it was Robert that led her to that. Their affair turns into actual love and E dna, along with the readers, begins to mental picture Robert as physically attractive, charming, and charismatic and sees in him, all the things Edna cannot find in her husband.When Robert realizes his true feelings for Edna, he flees to Mexico in hopes of forgetting about her, and in a moment of weakness he decides that he is not brave tolerable to follow through on his new found love for Edna and it could never be real because Edna is a mother, and most importantly, a married woman. Robert feels that his leaving will only protect the both of them from acting upon his forbidden love, exactly this only heightens Ednas awakening. The shock of Roberts quick announcement of his departure to Mexico is seen when the news is illogical to Edna over a dinner table. As she seated herself and was about to begin to eat her soup, which had been served when she entered the room, several persons apprised her simultaneously that Robert was going to Mexico. She laid her spoon down and looked a bout her bewildered. He had been with her, reading to her all the morning, and had never even mentioned such a place as Mexico. She had not seen him during the afternoon she had heard someone heartt he was at the house, upstairs with his mother.This she had thought nothing of, though she was surprised when he did not join her later in the afternoon, when she went down to the beach. (Chopin, page 55) Even though Edna doesnt spell out her guide feelings, its here that you can feel the desperation that takes over her when she learns of Roberts plans to depart from New Orleans. The tenderness of Roberts character can be notwithstanding analyzed as Ednas awakening is beginning Roberts love for her soon brings him back to New Orleans, when he realizes he cannot live away from her.He is privateness in a hell of shyness when he returns which is unlike him, but he does in fact, go through with actually telling Edna that he does love her but cannot act on his love because of her marriag e. Robert is a practical man, knowing that it is not ethical to take Edna away from her family and husband, but practically takes the form of a masochist when proclaiming his love for her. without the novel, Robert is compared to Alcee Arobin, a character well known as the towns grownup boy who has had numerous sexual encounters with other women, married or not, a comparison that Robert is not sociable of.Wayne Batten of the Southern Literary Journal, critiques this comparison in saying, Edna, accordingly, could have learned that the fantasies she constructs with Robert Lebrun do not turn over his attraction fundamentally different from the unembellished lure of Arobin. (Batten) This is simply saying that Edna mistakenly thought of Arobins passion as the same as the love that Robert feels for her. Later in the story, a doctor by the name of Dr.Mandelet walks Edna home after becoming faint watching Madame Ratignolle go through her fourth fatten of childbirth, he suspects she ha s returned her attentions back to Alcee, but as the reader knows, she is about to consummate her long-incubating passion for Robert. (Batten)Robert rejects the idea as Edna quickly tries to explain why consummating their love is not wrong because she is, in fact, her own independent woman. Robert does not have the same passion for Edna and he cannot go through with his feelings for her although his love is so powerful. She buried her face in his neck and said good bye again. Her seductive voice, together with his deep love for her, had enchant his sense experiences, had deprived him of every impulse but the longing to hold her and keep her. (Chopin, page 147) This only further proves that although he has such a commanding desire to have Edna in every way, he stands unwavering in his decision, seeing the impossibility in the situation. As Edna is stuck in a daydream, Robert understands their reality. Robert stands firm in that reality, difficult to remain practical about the who le situation.Finally the last we see of Robert LeBrun is in his heartfelt but remorseful flee, only leaving behind a note for Edna that simply states, Goodbye because I love you. (Chopin, page 152) And like a moon that never shows its face, the words are not there, but his vestigial message contains his feelings for her and the reasons why he cannot act upon them. This shows a true irony as he says goodbye to her for good, a devastating farewell that sends Edna into the final stage of her awakening with her new found sense of freedom and self expression as she gives her body to the sea, committing suicide.Looking back over the storyline we see how significant Robert Lebrun and the way he tried to manage his desire and love for Edna had truly been to the development of both characters. Through the analysis of Robert we learn of his morals and his attempts to remain practical even though he does love Edna and it leads one to wonder if Robert had not loved Edna in the way he did, if she would have found that reckless sense of independence that eventually consumed her, or if Robert would have matured enough to recognize when to walk away from a forbidden love for the betterment of someone else.It goes to show further how one person can awaken your soul to a new perspective and change your life entirely, whether that may be good, bad, or bestow you indifferent and we see just that in the story of The Awakening as Edna reaches her final stages of reality and Robert brings her to that just by loving her and allowing her to be herself.

Ap Bio Chapter 35 Notes

Chapter 35 shew Structure, Growth, and Development Lecture Outline Overview shaping Plants? The fanwort, an aquatic weed, demonstrates the great be onmental plasticity that is characteristic of determines. o The fanwort has feathery under pissing leaves and deep, flat, afloat(p) surface leaves. o twain flicker types confound ingredienttically identical cubicleular phones, only if the dissimilar environments in which they stick contract contrastive genes involved in leaf frame of referenceation to be turned on or off. In addition to plastic structural responses of individual imbeds to specialized environments, lay species have adaptations in morphology that benefit them in their specific environments. o For example, cacti have leaves that argon reduced to spines and a solution that services as the base come out of photosynthesis. These adaptations minimize pee loss in desert environments. The form of whatever shew is controlled by environmental and genet ic factors. As a declaration, no cardinal plants ar identical. Angiosperms stool up 90% of plant species and be at the base of the food web of darlingly severally terrestrial ecosy under reed organize. nigh land animals, including humans, dep closing on angiosperms directly or indirectly for sustenance. Concept 35. 1 The plant body has a hierarchy of reed electric variety meat, create from raw stuffs, and stalls. Plants, like multi prison cadreular animals, have organs that be composed of different tissues, and tissues that argon composed of different prison cellular phone types. o A tissue is a collection of cells with common structure and fail. o An organ consists of several types of tissues that work together to carry out exceptional functions. Vascular plants have three basic organs ideas, stems, and leaves. The basic morphology of vascular plants resounds their evolutionary retentivityy as terrestrial organisms that inhabit and draw resources fro m 2 very different environments. o Vascular plants start urine and minerals from the soil. o Vascular plants obtain CO2 and light above-ground. To obtain the resources they need, vascular plants have evolved two systems a subterranean musical theme system and an aerial deplumate system of stems and leaves. distributively system depends on the different. o Lacking chloroplasts and living in the dark, extraction would starve without photosynthates, the pelf and other carbohydrates imported from the ask system. Conversely, the consign system depends on water and minerals that grow absorb from the soil. infrastructures provide anchorage, absorption, and storage. A nail down is an organ that anchors a vascular plant in the soil, absorbs minerals and water, and stores sugars and starches. Most eudicots and gymnosperms have a tap squ ar off system, consisting of one sizeable vertical root (the taproot) that develops from an embryonic root. The taproot produces umpteen small lateral, or branch, grow. o In angiosperms, tap grow often store sugars and starches that later escort hightail itering and fruit action. Taproot systems principally penetrate deeply and argon well qualified to deep soils. In germless vascular plants and virtually monocots, including grasses, the embryonic root discloses and does not form a main root. Instead, many small root grow from the stem. Such roots be adventitious, a name describing a plant organ that grows in an unusual localisation of function. Each small root forms its own lateral roots, giving eject to a fibrous root systema mat of thin roots that spread out below the soil surface. o A fibrous root system is unremarkably shal move than a taproot system and is best adapted to shallow soils with light rainfall. Grass roots are gruelling in the upper few centimeters of soil. As a result, grasses make excellent ground cover for preventing erosion. The root system helps anchor a plant. In both tapr oot and fibrous root systems, absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root tips, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs enormously increase the surface area. o Root hairs are short-lived, tubular extensions of individual root cutaneal cells. Some plants have modified roots. Some draw close from roots, turn others are adventitious, arising above-ground from stems or even from leaves. Some modified roots provide redundant support and anchorage. former(a)s store water and nutrients or absorb oxygen from the air. Stems consist of alternating nodes and internodes. A stem is an organ consisting of alternating nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and internodes, the stem segments between nodes. At the angle organise by individually leaf and the stem is an wing-shaped bud with the potential to form a lateral shoot or branch. The offshoot of a young shoot is normally concentrated at its top, where thither is an top(prenominal) bud, or destruction bud, with g rowing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes. The presence of a terminal bud is partly responsible for inhibiting the addition of axillary buds, a phenomenon called top(prenominal) dominance. o By concentrating resources on victimization taller, apical dominance is an evolutionary adaptation that increases the plants exposure to light. In the absence of a terminal bud, the axillary buds break dormancy and give jump-start to lateral shoots eject with their own apical buds, leaves, and axillary buds. o This is why pruning heads and shrubs makes them bushier. Modified shoots with diverse functions have evolved in many plants. These shoots, which include stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs, are often mistaken for roots. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of or so plants. The leaf is the primary site of photosynthetic organs of most plants, although green stems are excessively photosynthetic. Although leaves vary extensively in form, they generally cons ist of a flattened blade and a stalk, the petiole, which joins the leaf to a stem node. o Grasses and other monocots lack petioles. In these plants, the base of the leaf forms a sheath that envelops the stem. Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves. Most monocots have parallel major(ip) veins that run the continuance of the blade, composition eudicot leaves have a branched network of major veins. Plant taxonomists use floral morphology, leaf morphology, the branching pattern of veins, and the spacial arrangement of leaves to help identify and classify plants. o For example, simple leaves have a single, un classifyd blade, while compound leaves have several leaflets attached to the petiole. o Many large leaves are compound, which allows them to withstand soused winds without tearing. The structural adaptation of compound leaves also confines pathogens that invade the leaf to one leaflet. Most leaves are specialize for photosynt hesis. Some plants have leaves that have engender adapted for other functions, including tendrils that cling to supports, spines of cacti for defense, leaves modified for water storage, and brightly colored leaves that attract pollinators. Plant organs are composed of three tissue systems cutaneous, vascular, and ground. Each organ of a plant has three tissue systems dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Each system is continuous end-to-end the plant body. The dermal tissue system is the plants satellite tutelar lotion. In pulpy plants, the dermal tissue system is a single point of tightly packed cells, or epidermis. The epidermis of leaves and most stems secretes a waxy coating, the cuticle, which helps the aerial part of the plant retain water. In woodwindy plants, protective tissues called periderm replace the epidermis in older fictitious characters of stems and roots. The epidermis has other specialized characteristics consistent with the function of the org an it covers. For example, the root hairs are extensions of cuticular cells near the tips of the roots. o Trichomes, outgrowths of shoot epidermis, reduce water loss and reflect light. They protect against insects with sticky secretions of insecticidal biochemicals. The vascular tissue system is involved in the lift of materials between roots and shoots. o Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots. o Phloem transports sugars, the products of photosynthesis, to the roots and sites of growth, such as developing leaves and fruits. The vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stela. In angiosperms, the root stele forms a solid central vascular cylinder, while the stele of stems and leaves consists of vascular bundles, separate strands of xylem and bast. Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues with a variety of cell types. The ground tissue system is tissue that is uncomplete dermal nor vascular. Ground tissue is grantd into pith, int ernal to vascular tissue, and cortex, external to the vascular tissue. The functions of specialized cells in spite of appearance ground tissue include photosynthesis, storage, and support. Plant tissues are composed of three basic cell types parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Plant cells are secernate, with each type of plant cell possessing structural adaptations that make specific functions possible. o carrell distinction may be evident at bottom the protoplast, the cell contents exclusive of the cell wall. o Modifications of cell walls also play a role in plant cell differentiation. The major types of differentiated plant cells are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, water-conducting cells of the xylem, and sugar-conducting cells of the phloem. Mature parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively thin and tractile most lack siemensary walls. The protoplast of a parenchyma cell usually has a large central vacuole. Parenchyma cells are often depicted as typical plant cells because they generally are the least specialized, but there are exceptions. o For example, the highly specialized sieve-tube elements of the phloem are parenchyma cells. Parenchyma cells perform most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing dissimilar organic products. o For example, photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. o Some parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have neutral plastids that store starch. The fleshy tissue of most fruit is composed of parenchyma cells. Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types under special conditions, such as the repair and replacement of organs after injury to the plant. In the laboratory, it is possible to regenerate an entire plant from a single parenchyma cell. Collenchyma cells have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, although the walls are unevenly thick. Grouped into strands or cylinders , collenchyma cells help support young separate of the plant shoot. Young stems and petioles often have strands of collenchyma just below the epidermis, providing support without restraining growth. Mature collenchyma cells are living and flexible and elongate with the stems and leaves they support. Sclerenchyma cells have thick petty(a) walls usually strengthened by lignin they function as living elements of the plant. Sclerenchyma cells are much more rigid than collenchyma cells. contradictory parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells cannot elongate. Sclerenchyma cells occur in plant regions that have stop lengthening. Many sclerenchyma cells are dead at functional maturity, but they produce rigid utility(prenominal) cells walls in advance the protoplast dies. o In move of the plant that are still elongating, junior-grade walls are deposited in a spiral or ring pattern, enabling the cell wall to stretch like a spring as the cell grows. Two types of sclerenchyma cells, fib ers and sclereids, are specialized entirely for support. o Fibers are long, slender, and fall, and usually occur in groups. ? Fibers from hemp are used for making rope, and fibers from flax are woven into linen. o Sclereids are irregular in shape and shorter than fibers.They have very thick, lignified secondary walls. ? Sclereids impart hardness to nutshells and seed coats and the bouncy texture to pear fruits. The water-conducting elements of xylem, the tracheids and vas elements, are elongated cells that are dead at functional maturity. o The thickened cell walls remain as a nonliving conduit through which water can flow. Both tracheids and vass have secondary walls interrupted by pits, th intimate regions where only primary walls are present. irrigate moves from cell to cell mainly through pits. Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. Because their secondary walls are hardened with lignin, tracheids function in support as well as transport. Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, thinner-walled, and less tapered than tracheids. Vessel elements are aligned end to end, forming long micropipes or xylem vessels. The ends are perforated, enabling water to flow freely. In the phloem, sucrose, other organic compounds, and some mineral ions move through tubes formed by shackles of cells called sieve-tube elements. Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, although a sieve-tube element lacks a nucleus, ribosomes, and a distinct vacuole. The end walls, the sieve plates, have contracts that facilitate the flow of fluid between cells. Each sieve-tube element has a nonconducting nucleated companion cell, which is connected to the sieve-tube element by numerous plasmodesmata. The nucleus and ribosomes of the companion cell serve both that cell and the adjacent sieve-tube element. In some plants, companion cells in leaves help load sugar into the sieve-tube elements, which transport the sugars to other parts of the plant. Co ncept 35. 2 Meristems generate cells for saucily organs. A major remainder between plants and most animals is that plant growth is not limited to an embryonic or teenaged period. Most plants demonstrate indeterminate growth, growing as long as the plant lives. In contrast, most animals and genuine plant organs, such as flowers, leaves, and thorns, undergo determinate growth, ceasing to grow after they reach a legitimate size. Indeterminate growth does not mean immortality. Annuals complete their life cyclefrom germination to flowering to seed production to deathin a single year or less. o Many wildflowers and great food crops, such as cereals and legumes, are annuals. The lives of biennials span two age, with flowering and fruiting in the second year. o Radishes and carrots are biennials that are harvested after the first-class honours degree year. Plants such as trees, shrubs, and some grasses that live many years are perennials. o Some buffalo grass of the North Ameri can plains has been growing for 10,000 years from seeds that sprouted at the end of the last ice age. o Perennials do not usually die from old age but from an infection or some environmental trauma, such as elan or drought. A plant is capable of indeterminate growth because it has perpetually embryonic tissues called meristems. Apical meristems, find at the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots, supply cells for the plant to grow in length. This elongation, primary growth, enables roots to conduct through the soil and shoots to increase their exposure to light and carbon dioxide. In herbaceous plants, primary growth produces almost all of the plant body. Woody plants also show secondary growth, progressive thickening of roots and shoots where primary growth has ceased. Secondary growth is produced by lateral meristems, cylinders of dividing cells that extend along the lengths of roots and shoots. The vascular cambium adds works of vascular tissue called secondary xylem an d phloem. o The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with thicker, tougher periderm. The cells within meristems divide to generate additional cells, some of which remain in the meristematic region, while others differentiate and are incorporated into the tissues and organs of the growing plant. o Cells that remain as sources of new cells are called initials. o Cells that are displaced from the meristem, called derivatives, occur to divide until the cells they produce gravel specialized within developing tissues. At the tip of a winter twig of a broad-leaved tree is the dormant apical bud, enclosed by scales that protect its apical meristem. In the spring, the bud sheds its scales and begins a new spurt of primary growth. Along each growth segment, nodes are marked by scars left over(p) when leaves fell in the autumn. Above each leaf scar is either an axillary bud or a branch twig. Farther down the twig are whorls of scars left by the scales that enclosed the apical bud durin g the preceding winter. Each spring and summer, as primary growth extends the shoot, secondary growth thickens the parts of the shoot that formed in earlier years. Concept 35. Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots. Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems. o Herbaceous plants and the youngest parts of wooden plants represent the primary plant body. Apical meristems lengthen both roots and shoots. However, there are important differences in the primary growth of these two systems. The root tip is covered by a thimble-like root cap, which protects the meristem as the root pushes through the abrasive soil during primary growth. o The cap also secretes a polysaccharide slime that lubricates the soil around the growing root tip. Growth in length is concentrated just behind the root tip, where three zones of cells at successive stages of primary growth are located. These zonesthe zone of cell family, th e zone of elongation, and the zone of differentiationgrade together. The zone of cell divergence includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. o New root cells are produced in this region, including the cells of the root cap. The zone of cell division blends into the zone of elongation, where cells elongate, sometimes to more than ten times their original length. It is this elongation of cells that is mainly responsible for button the root tip, including the meristem, into the soil. o The meristem sustains growth by incessantly adding cells to the youngest end of the zone of elongation. In the zone of differentiation, cells complete differentiation and become distinct cell types. The primary growth of roots produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. Water and minerals absorbed from the soil must enter the plant through the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering the root. Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of epidermal cells. Most roo ts have a vascular cylinder of xylem and phloem. o In eudicot roots, xylem radiates from the center like a star, with phloem developing between the arms of the xylem star. o In monocot roots, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of parenchyma touch by alternating xylem and phloem. The central region, called pit, is distinct from stem pith. The ground tissue of roots consists of parenchyma cells that fill the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and the epidermis. Cells within the ground tissue store sugars and starches, and their plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil. The innermost layer of the cortex, the endodermis, is a cylinder one cell thick that forms a selective obstruction between the cortex and the vascular cylinder. Lateral roots may sprout from the outermost layer of the vascular cylinder, the pericycle. o A lateral root pushes through the cortex and epidermis to emerge from the established root. o The vascular tissue of the lateral root is continuous with the vascular cylinder of the primary root. The apical meristem of a shoot is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip. Leaves renegade as leaf primordia on the flanks of the apical meristem. Axillary buds develop from islands of meristematic cells left by apical meristems at the bases of the leaf primordia. Within a bud, leaf primordia are crowded close together because the internodes are very short. Most of the elongation of the shoot occurs by growth in length of slightly older internodes below the shoot apex. In some plants, including grasses, internodes bear to elongate all along the length of the shoot over a prolonged period. These plants have meristematic regions called additive meristems at the base of each leaf. o This explains why grass continues to grow after being mowed. Unlike its central position in a root, vascular tissue runs the length of a stem in strands called vascular bundles. o Because the vascular system of the stem is near the surface, branches can develop with connections to the vascular tissue without having to originate from deep within the main shoot. In most eudicots, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, with pith inside and cortex outdoors the ring. The vascular bundles have xylem facing the pith and phloem facing the cortex. In the stems of most monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue instead a than arranged in a ring. In both monocots and eudicots, the stems ground tissue is broadly speaking parenchyma. Many stems are strengthened by collenchyma cells just beneath the epidermis. Sclerenchyma fiber cells also provide support. The epidermal barrier of leaves is interrupted only by stomata, tiny pores that regulate gas ex alternate between the touch air and the photosynthetic cells inside a leaf. Each stomatal pore is flanked by two specialized epidermal cells called guard cells. o The term stoma can refer to either the stomat al pore or the entire stomatal complex, the pore and two guard cells. The stomata are also the major avenues of evaporative water loss from the planta process called transpiration. The ground tissue of the leaf, the mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. The mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. In many eudicots, a layer or more of columnar border mesophyll lies above spongy mesophyll. CO2 and oxygen circulate through the labyrinth of air spaces around the on an irregular basis spaced cells of the spongy mesophyll. The air spaces are special(prenominal)ly large near stomata, where gas exchange with the outside air occurs. The vascular tissue of a leaf is continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. Leaf traces, connections from vascular bundles in the stem, pass through petioles and into leaves. Vascular bundles in the leaves are called veins. Each vein is enclosed in a protective bundle sheath consisting of one or more layers of parenchyma. o Bundle-sheath cells are with child(p) in leaves that undergo C4 photosynthesis. Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. The xylem brings water and minerals to the photosynthetic tissues, and the phloem carries sugars and other organic products to other parts of the plant. The vascular infrastructure also functions to support and pay back the shape of the leaf. Concept 35. 4 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants. The stems and roots of most eudicots increase in girth by secondary growth. The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, increasing vascular flow and support for the shoot system. o The cork cambium produces a tough, thick covering consisting of wax-impregnated cells that protect the stem from water loss and attack by insects, bacteria, a nd fungal spores. Primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different regions. o Elongation of the stem (primary growth) occurs at the apical meristem, but increases in diameter (secondary growth) occur far down the stem. All gymnosperms and many eudicots have secondary growth, but it is rare in monocots. The vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells that may be one cell thick. The vascular cambium forms successive layers of secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior. The accumulation of this tissue over the years accounts for most of the increase in diameter of a woody plant. The vascular cambium develops from parenchyma cells that retain the capacity to divide. o In a typical woody stem, the vascular cambium forms as a continuous cylinder outside the cortex and primary xylem and inside the pith and primary phloem. In a typical woody root, the vascular cambium forms in segments between the primary phloem, the lobes of primar y xylem, and the pericycle. Viewed in cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials. o As these cells divide, they increase the circumference of the vascular cambium, adding secondary xylem to the inside of the cambium and secondary phloem to the outside. Some initials are elongated, with long axes parallel to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce cells such as tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers of the xylem. They also produce sieve-tube elements, companion cells, parenchyma, and fibers of the phloem. Other initials are shorter, oriented perpendicular to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce vascular rays that transference water and nutrients laterally within the woody stem, store sugars and starches, and aid in wound repair. As secondary growth continues over the years, layer upon layer of secondary xylem stash, producing the tissue we call wood. Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel elements (in angiosperms), and fibers. These cells, dead at functional maturity, have thick, lignified walls that give wood its hardness and strength. The first tracheid and vessel cells formed in the spring (early wood) have larger diameters and thinner walls than the cells produced later in the summer (late wood). o The structure of the early wood maximizes delivery of water to new, expanding leaves. o The thick-walled cells of later wood provide more forcible support. In temperate regions, secondary growth in perennial plants ceases during the winter. This pattern of growthcambium dormancy, early wood production, and late wood productionproduces annual growth rings. Dendrochronology is the science of analyzing tree ring growth patterns. o Scientists can use ring patterns to identify climate change. As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem, cognise as heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals. o Heartwood contains resins and other compounds that protect the core of the t ree from fungi and insects. The outer layers, known as sapwood, continue to transport xylem sap. Because each new layer of secondary xylem has a larger circumference, secondary growth enables the xylem to transport more sap each year, supplying more leaves. Only the youngest secondary phloem, closest to the vascular cambium, functions in sugar transport. The older secondary phloem dies and is sloughed off as part of the bark. Early in secondary growth, the epidermis produced by primary growth splits, dries, and falls off the stem or root. The epidermis is replaced by two tissues produced by the first cork cambium, which arises in the outer cortex of stems and in the outer layer of the pericycle of roots. The first tissue, phelloderm, is a thin layer of parenchyma cells that forms to the interior of the cork cambium. The cork cambium also produces cork cells, which accumulate at the cambiums exterior. Waxy material called suberin deposited in the cell walls of cork cells befor e they die acts as a barrier against water loss, physical damage, and pathogens. A cork cambium and the tissues it produces make up a layer of periderm, a protective layer that replaces the epidermis. Because cork cells have suberin and are compacted together, the periderm is impermeable to water and gases. In most plants, water and minerals are absorbed in the youngest parts of the roots. The older parts of the roots anchor the plant and transport water and solutes between roots and shoots. In areas called lenticels, spaces develop between the cork cells of the periderm. o These areas within the trunk facilitate gas exchange with the outside air. The thickening of a stem or root splits the first cork cambium, which loses its meristematic activity and differentiates into cork cells. A new cork cambium forms to the inside, resulting in a new layer of periderm. As this process continues, older layers of periderm are sloughed off. o This produces the cracked, peeling bark of man y tree trunks. Bark is all tissues external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem (produced by the vascular cambium), the most modern periderm, and all the outer layers of periderm. Concept 35. 5 Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body. The festering of body form and organization is called morphogenesis. During plant development, a single cell, the zygote, gives rise to a multicellular plant of a particular form with functionally integrated cells, tissues, and organs. Each cell in the plant body contains the same genomes, but different patterns of gene expression cause cells to differentiate. The three developmental processes of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation act to transform the fertilized egg into a plant. Molecular biology is revolutionizing the study of plants. Modern molecular techniques enable plant biologists to go over how growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation give rise to a plant. Much of th is research has focused on genus Arabidopsis thaliana, a small weed in the mustard family. o Thousands of these small plants can be polite in a few square meters of lab space. o With a generation time of well-nigh six weeks, Arabidopsis is an excellent model for genetic studies. Arabidopsis also has one of the smallest genomes of all known plants. Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in a six-year multinational project. o More recently, rice and poplar trees have had their entire genomes sequenced. Arabidopsis has a total of about 26,000 genes, with fewer than 15,000 different types of genes. nowadays that the DNA sequence of Arabidopsis is known, plant biologists are working to identify the functions of every one of the plants genes. To aid in this effort, biologists are attempting to create mutants for every gene in the plants genome. Study of the functions of these genes has already expanded our understanding of plant development. By identifying ea ch genes function, researchers subscribe to to establish a blueprint for how plants develop, a major goal of systems biology. One day it may be possible to create a computer-generated virtual plant that will enable researchers to visualize which plant genes are activated in different parts of the plant during the entire course of development. Growth involves both cell division and cell expansion. Cell division in meristems increases the cell number, thereby increasing the potential for growth. However, it is cell expansion, especially cell elongation, that accounts for the increase in plant mass. The plane (direction) and symmetry of cell division are important determinants of plant form. o If the planes of division by a single cell and its descendents are parallel to the plane of the first cell division, a single file of cells will be produced. o If the planes of cell division of the descendent cells vary at haphazard, an unorganized clump of cells will result. Although mitos is results in the equal apportionment of chromosomes to daughter cells, cytokinesis may be asymmetrical. Asymmetrical cell division, in which one cell receives more cytoplasm than the other, is common in plant cells and usually signals a key developmental event. o For example, guard cells arise from an unspecialized epidermal cell through an asymmetrical cell division to form a large unspecialized epidermal cell and a small guard cell mother cell. o sentry duty cells form when the small mother cell divides in a plane perpendicular to the first cell division. The plane in which a cell will divide is determined during late interphase. Microtubules in the outer cytoplasm become concentrated into a ring, the preprophase band. Although this ring disappears before metaphase, its imprint consists of an ordered array of actin microfilaments that body after the microtubules disperse and signals the future plane of cell division. Cell expansion in animal cells is quite different from c ell expansion in plant cells. o Animal cells grow by synthesizing a protein-rich cytoplasm, a metabolically expensive process. Growing plant cells add some protein-rich material to their cytoplasm, but water uptake by the large central vacuole accounts for 90% of a plant cells expansion. o This enables plants to grow economically and rapidly. For example, bamboo shoots can elongate more than 2 m per week. Rapid expansion of shoots and roots increases plants exposure to light and soil, an important evolutionary adaptation to the immobile lifestyle of plants. In a growing plant cell, enzymes weaken cross-links in the cell wall, allowing it to expand as water diffuses into the vacuole by osmosis. The wall loosens when henry ions secreted by the cell activate cell wall enzymes that break the cross-links between polymers in the wall. This reduces restraint on the turgid cell, which can take up more water and expand. Small vacuoles coalesce to form the cells central vacuole. The gr eatest expansion of a plant cell is usually oriented along the plants main axis. o The orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the innermost layers of the cell wall cause this differential growth, as the cell expands mainly perpendicular to the grain of the microfibrils. o The orientation of microtubules in the cells outermost cytoplasm determines the orientation of cellulose microfibrils, the basic structural units of the cell wall. Arabidopsis mutants confirm the role of cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and growth. Studies of Arabidopsis mutants have confirmed the importance of cytoplasmic microtubules in both cell division and expansion. For example, fass mutants have unusually squat cells, which follow seemingly random planes of cell division. The roots and stems of fass mutants lack the ordered cell files and layers. Fass mutants develop into tiny adult plants with all their organs sozzled longitudinally. The organization of microtubules in fass mutants is abnorm al. o In interphase cells, the microtubules are randomly positioned. Preprophase bands do not form precedent to mitosis. o Therefore, the cellulose microfibrils deposited in the cell wall cannot be arranged to determine the direction of the cells elongation. Cells with a fass mutation expand in all directions equally and divide in a soggy arrangement, leading to stout stature and disorganized tissues. Morphogenesis depends on pattern formation. Morphogenesis organizes dividing and expanding cells into multicellular tissues and organs. The development of specific structures in specific locations is called pattern formation. Pattern formation depends to a large extent on positional information, signals that continuously indicate each cells location within an embryonic structure. Within a developing organ, each cell responds to positional information by differentiating into a particular cell type. Developmental biologists are accumulating evidence that gradients of specific mole cules, generally proteins or mRNAs, provide positional information. o For example, a substance spread out from a shoots apical meristem may inform the cells below of their distance from the shoot tip. A second chemical signal produced by the outermost cells may enable a cell to smoke its position relative to the radial axis of the developing organ. o Developmental biologists are testing the possibility that diffusible chemical signals provide plant cells with positional information. One type of positional information is polarity, the identification of the root end and shoot end along a well-developed axis. Axial polarity results in morphological and physiological differences. The unidirectional movement of the hormone auxin causes the emergence of adventitious roots and shoots from the appropriate ends of plant cuttings. The establishment of axial polarity is a critical step in plant morphogenesis. The first division of a plant zygote is normally asymmetrical and may initia te the polarization of the plant body into root and shoot ends. erst this polarity has been induced, it is very difficult to reverse experimentally. o In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis, the first division is symmetrical, and the resulting ball-shaped plant lacks roots and leaves. Other genes that regulate pattern formation and morphogenesis include master restrictive genes called homeotic genes, which mediate many developmental events, such as organ initiation. For example, the protein product of the KNOTTED-1 homeotic gene is important for the development of leaf morphology, including the production of compound leaves. o Overexpression of this gene causes the compound leaves of a tomato plant to become supercompound. Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression. The diverse cell types of a plant, including guard cells, sieve-tube elements, and xylem vessel elements, all descend from a common cell, the zygote, and share the same DNA. The cloning of whole plants from single material cells demonstrates that the genome of a differentiated cell remains intact and can dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise to the diverse cell types of a plant. Cellular differentiation depends, to a large extent, on the control of gene expression. Cells with the same genomes follow different developmental pathways because they selectively express certain genes at specific times during differentiation. The activation or inactivation of specific genes involved in cellular differentiation depends on positional informationwhere a particular cell is located relative to other cells. For example, two distinct cell types in Arabidopsis, root hair cells and hairless epidermal cells, develop from immature epidermal cells. o Cells in contact with one underlying cortical cell differentiate into mature, hairless cells, while those in contact with two underlying cortical cells differentiate into root hair cells. o The homeotic gene GLABRA-2 is normally exp ressed only in hairless cells. If it is rendered dysfunctional, every root epidermal cell develops a root hair. Clonal analysis of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of a cells location in its developmental fate. In the process of shaping an organ, patterns of cell division and cell expansion preserve the differentiation of cells by placing them in specific locations relative to other cells. Thus, positional information underlies all the processes of development growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation. One approach to studying the relationship among these processes is clonal analysis, mapping the cell lineages (clones) derived from each cell in an apical meristem as organs develop. Researchers use mutations to distinguish a specific meristematic cell from the neighboring cells in the shoot tip. For example, a somatic mutation in an apical cell that prevents chlorophyll production produces an albino cell. o This cell and all its descendants appear as a linear file of col orless cells tally down the long axis of the green shoot. To some extent, the developmental fates of cells in the shoot apex are predictable. o For example, clonal mapping has shown that almost all the cells derived from division of the outermost meristematic cells become part of the dermal tissue of leaves and stems. It is not possible to pinpoint precisely which cells of the meristem will give rise to specific tissues and organs, however, because random changes in rates and planes of cell division can reorganize the meristem. o For example, the outermost cells usually divide in a plane parallel to the surface of the shoot tip. o Occasionally, however, an outer cell divides in a plane perpendicular to this layer, placing one daughter cell beneath the surface, among cells derived from different lineages. In plants, a cells developmental fate is determined not by its membership in a particular lineage but by its final position in an emerging organ.Phase changes mark major shifts i n development. In plants, developmental changes can occur within the shoot apical meristem, leading to a phase change in the organs produced. o One example of a phase change is the gradual spiritual rebirth from a juvenile phase to an adult phase. o In some plants, the result of the phase change is a change in the size and shape of leaves. o The leaves of juvenile and mature shoot regions differ in shape and other features. o Once the meristem has laid down the juvenile nodes and internodes, they retain that status even as the shoot continues to elongate and the meristem changes to the mature phase. If axillary buds give rise to branches, those shoots reflect the developmental phase of the main shoot region from which they arise. o Although the main shoot apex may have made the transition to the mature phase, the older region of the shoot continues to give rise to branches bearing juvenile leaves if that shoot region was laid down when the main apex was still in the juvenile phase . o A branch with juvenile leaves may actually be older than a branch with mature leaves. The juvenile-to-mature phase transition points to another difference in the development of plants versus animals. o In an animal, this ransition occurs at the level of the entire organism, as a larva develops into an adult animal. o In plants, phase changes during the news report of apical meristems can result in juvenile and mature regions coexisting along the axis of each shoot. Genes controlling transcription play key roles in a meristems change from a vegetive to a floral phase. Another striking phase change in plant development is the transition from a vegetative shoot tip to a floral meristem. This transition is triggered by a junto of environmental cues, such as day length, and internal signals, such as hormones. Unlike vegetative growth, which is indeterminate, the production of a flower by an apical meristem stops primary growth of that shoot. This transition is associated with switching on floral meristem identity genes. The protein products of these genes are transcription factors that help activate the genes required for the development of the floral meristem. Once a shoot meristem is induced to flower, positional information commits each primordium arising from the flanks of the shoot tip to develop into a specific flower organa sepal, petal, stamen, or carpel. Viewed from above, the floral organs develop in four concentric circles, or whorls. o Sepals form the fourth (outermost) whorl, petals form the third, stamens form the second, and carpels form the first (innermost) whorl. Organ identity genes, or plant homeotic genes, regulate positional information and function in the development of the floral pattern. o Mutations in these genes may lead to the substitution of one type of floral organ for the expected one. Organ identity genes code for transcription factors. Positional information determines which organ identity genes are expressed in whic h particular floral-organ primordium. In Arabidopsis, three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs. The ABC model of flower formation identifies how these genes direct the formation of four types of floral organs. The ABC model proposes that each class of organ identity genes is switched on in two specific whorls of the floral meristem. o A genes are switched on in the two outer whorls (sepals and petals), B genes are switched on in the two middle whorls (petals and stamens), and C genes are switched on in the two inner whorls (stamens and carpels). Sepals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only A genes are active. o Petals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which A and B genes are active. o Stamens arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which B and C genes are active. o Carpels arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only C genes are active. The ABC model can account for the phenotypes of mutants lacking A, B, or C gene activity. o When gene A is missing, it inhibits C, and vice versa. o If either A or C is missing, the other takes its place.

Nutrition and Junk Food Essay

Tired, crabby, or unfocused in class? It could be the fodder you are wash uping. The lack of Introduction hooks the reviewer with a question. Thesis presented as last sentence of introductory paragraph. healthy and tasty instruct eat selections has recently become a problem in almost every elementary, middle and high school across the nation. Most schools sell pan food to students and I think this is wrong. There are galore(postnominal) good reasons to remove toss food from school lunch menus, and creating a healthier student be is number one. Junk foods should be taken out of school lunch menus because they affect your personate and judicial decision in negative ways.Junk food is a major cause of childhood obesity. 32% of young person are overweight and nearly 74% are unfit. The pretty food offered in public schools contributes to this unaccepted Writer takes a clear position Authoritative position supported by citing research and development statistics. Details and f acts support position. problem. A single 12-ounce can of soda has as almost of these sodas much as 13 teaspoons of sugar in the form of high-fructose corn syrup. are avail fit to kids in school at low prices as fountainhead as many other completely unhealthy foods like chips and cookies. check lunches have a very high fat content and the USDA supplies schools with the same commodity foods as prisons. Due to the lack of fresh and flavorful food, many students will choose to buy the cheap junk food offered instead. If we could stock vending machines and cafeterias Language is precise and lively. Sentence structures are varied. with healthier foods, it would definitely stool a dent in the childhood obesity rate. Another reason cafeterias should start serving healthier food is that junk food does Second body paragraph present another fully unquestionable reason for position. ot give kids the energy needed to stay focused in school or the male monarch to participate in sports. Lunch is right in the middle of the day if you eat fatty or sugary foods, it could cause you to get tired and not pay attention in your afternoon classes.In addition, junk food zaps your energy, which affects your physical activity. You cannot perform your best if you dont have any energy. practice. Many people on my swim team used to snack on chips and soda before When some of us complained about Appropriate anecdote used to support demarcation. etting tired and not being able to make it through practice, our coach asked us what we were eating beforehand. When he heard about our diet, he told us that we shouldnt be consuming fried, fatty foods before we exercise. We should be eating healthy, natural foods because these give us energy and are good for our bodies. Many people may argue that banning junk food in schools is not a good idea. Concession and thorough response to counterargument. Students Sentence styles and structures are varied. tell that junk food just tastes better than h ealthy food and they prefer it.There is no regularisation that says healthy food cant taste good Many junk foods can be replaced by similar tasting, healthier substitutes. Instead of fried chips, provide baked. Instead of soda, offer carbonated harvest-feast juice. If substituting all of the unhealthy foods does not work, what about reducing the amount that we serve? Have a healthy main portion for lunch and a small dessert sweets are not bad as long as they are consumed in moderation. There are multiple ways to authorise the problem of peoples taste buds craving tasty foods.We just have to enforce this change. Providing junk food in school cafeterias is just an all-around bad idea. schoolman and physical potential. We need to eat The food we Call to action concludes essay. healthy food so we can reach our fullest eat affects our body and mind and we need to take advantage of that Now that we understand the problem, its time to fix it by banning the sale of junk food in schools. Writing demonstrates proficient use of standard and academic English. Commentary This essay is an example of 7th grade advanced persuasive essay writing.The essay presents a clear position and does so in an original and engaging fashion. Support for the position is developed well with facts and anecdotes. Though insufficient research is cited to support some assertions, overall, this 7th grader has presented a compelling and convincing argument and used an authoritative tone and strategic language to convince readers of her position. The writer uses lively and specific language, which besides helps to persuade readers. There is significant sentence variety in the essay along with clear mesh of writing conventions and spelling.